Introduction. This article examines the legal framework governing the legal documents that constitute EAEU law, identifying, qualifying, recognizing, and eliminating barriers in the EAEU internal market, and examines practical approaches to apply ing the existing regulatory framework on so-called "barrier issues" by the Eurasian Economic Commission in collaboration with authorized bodies of EAEU member states.

Materials and methods. The research is directly based on the Treaty establishing the EAEU of May 28, 2014, as well as on the entire system of regulatory legal acts of EAEU bodies (orders of the EEC and decisions of the EEC Board, orders and decisions of the EEC Council, and decisions of the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council). In addition, the study utilized materials from special analytical reports by the Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC), as well as from a number of leading Russian scientific and practical centers (Higher School of Economics, Russian Inter national Affairs Council), which are specifically dedi cated to addressing issues related to eliminating barriers existing in the EAEU domestic market. The study also utilized materials from the EAEU Court, as well as information from specialized databases maintained by the EEC on the issue under consideration. General scientific methods (dialectical, logical, and systemic-structural methods) and specific scientific methods (historical-legal, cybernetic-legal, and formal-legal methods) were used in the study.

Research results. The study and analysis of the issues under consideration and the regulatory legal documents governing this area of Eurasian integration allowed us to uncover the history of the EEC's work on eliminating barriers in the EAEU's internal market, the organizational and institutional actions taken by EAEU bodies to ensure compliance with the so-called "four freedoms" within the EAEU (free movement of goods, services, labor, and capital), and the legal framework, rules, and powers of participants in the process of identifying, classifying, and elimi nating barriers in the EAEU's internal market. Discussion and conclusion. In addition to the detailed description of the functioning of the EAEU's existing legal mechanism for identifying, classifying, and eliminating barriers in the internal markets of member states, possible ways to improve legal regulation in this area were presented and formulated based on a study of the experience gained so far and the results of more than a decade of law enforcement efforts in barrier-related matters within the EAEU.

Introduction. This article analyzes the limitations of the current legal model for the Federal Information System for Information on Education and/or Qualification Documents (FIS FRDO) in implementing continuing professional education programs. Based on the author's analysis of Article 76 of Federal Law No. 273-FZ "On Education in the Russian Federation," its bylaws, and law enforcement practices, it is shown that the combination of definitional inconsistencies in regulating continuing professional education and the structural gap in the control framework are exacerbated by the passive, registration-based nature of the FIS FRDO. As a result, the educational document verification system operates effectively only post-factum and fails to prevent practices of fictitious education and the issuance of documents to individuals without the necessary basic education. At the same time, the FIS FRDO has significant untapped potential for preventive control of admission to DPO programs and verification of compliance of learning outcomes with qualification requirements, which necessitates the theoretical justification and normative design of the FIS FRDO 2.0 model as an independent element of the administrative-legal mechanism for the implementation of continuing professional education programs.

Materials and methods. The study is based on an analysis of Federal Law № 273-FZ «On Education in the Russian Federation», bylaws governing the Federal Information System of the Russian Federation for Educational Development, the Regulation on the Licensing of Educational Activities, legislation on state control (supervision), and case law. Formal legal, comparative legal, institutional, and legal modeling methods were used.

Research results. It was discovered that, in its current configuration, the Federal Information System for Advanced Education (FIS FRDO) performs accounting, legitimizing, and verification functions for already issued documents, without participating in decisions regarding admission to continuing education programs or ensuring that students' basic education complies with qualification requirements. The concept of «FIS FRDO 2.0» was formulated, including a profile-based admission filter based on broad groups of training areas, a mechanism for cross-verification of basic and continuing education data, a module for automatically identifying anomalies («red flags»), and a standardized definition of time limits for retrospective data coverage.

Discussion and conclusion. This paper demonstrates how the integration of the "FIS FRDO 2.0" into the licensing and federal government oversight framework allows for overcoming the structural gap in the control framework for continuing professional education (CPE), identified in law enforcement practice, and strengthening the connection between program outcomes and the qualification regimes of individual sectors.

The paper also substantiates the directions for the phased regulatory consolidation of the proposed model, aimed at strengthening preventive oversight of the integrity of continuing professional education programs while maintaining the necessary level of autonomy.

Introduction. The article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of awarding foreign heads of state as an institution of international law and diplomatic practice. Despite the widespread use of award diplomacy, this institution remains weakly institutionalized in international legal terms, which generates systemic collisions between political expediency and the normative requirements of award statutes. The purpose of the study is to identify and systematize the international legal problems arising from the awarding of foreign leaders and to propose doctrinal ways of their resolution.

Materials and methods. The methodological basis of the study includes the formal legal method, historical legal analysis, comparative legal method, as well as a systematic approach to the analysis of international legal phenomena. The empirical base comprises precedents of award practice of the USSR (1963–1964), the Russian Federation (1991–2024), as well as foreign states (Czech Republic, USA, France, Finland, Hungary, Canada, China).

Research results. As a result of the analysis, four categories of international legal problems arising from the awarding of foreign leaders have been identified: (1) the problem of compliance with the award statute (ultra vires); (2) the problem of symbolic legitimation of repressive policies as a form of violation of the principle of non-intervention; (3) the problem of irrevocability of awarding and jurisdictional vacuum in the revocation of awards; (4) the problem of "alternative awards" by non-state actors. The thesis about the existence of the phenomenon of a "normative crisis" of the award system has been substantiated.

Discussion and conclusion. The necessity of doctrinal development of international award law as a sub-discipline of international law has been substantiated. Four principles of lawful award diplomacy are proposed: the principle of statutory compliance, the principle of non-legitimation, the principle of proportionality, the principle of procedural regularity. Recommendations for improving the legal regulation of awarding foreign citizens have been formulated.

Introduction. This article examines the features of Swiss citizenship in the Swiss Confederation, its specifics, and procedural aspects. It analyzes the key principles of Swiss citizenship, including the three tiered citizenship model, the principle of acquiring citizenship by descent, the prevention of statelessness, and the permissibility of multiple citizenships. The main methods and mechanisms for acquiring and terminating citizenship are analyzed separately. The distribution of powers between the municipality, canton, and federal government is examined, as well as the content and nature of the criteria used to grant citizenship or, in Resources and methods. The study is based on an analysis of current Swiss legislation, judicial practice, and official commentaries and publications of Swiss government bodies. The article utilizes a combination of scientific methods, including general logical methods, comparative legal analysis, systematization, and generalization of regulatory material.

Research results. The characteristic features of Swiss citizenship, conditioned by the decentralization of powers between the federal government, cantons, and municipality, are identified. Swiss citizenship is acquired by birth or through naturalization, which is divided into ordinary and simplified. The ordinary naturalization procedure, which is primarily the responsibility of the cantons and municipalities, is highly subjective in its assessment of applicants based on their country of birth, creating risks of discrimination in the processing of their applications. Simplified naturalization, which is administered by federal authorities, is, in contrast, based on uniform formal criteria, virtually eliminating the risk of bias in citizenship decisions. Termination of citizenship is possible both voluntarily and involuntarily, but the law strictly limits such cases to prevent statelessness exceptional cases, to revoke it. and maintain a balance between the interests of the state and human rights.

Discussion and conclusion. Conclusions are drawn regarding the need to develop uniform standards and criteria for the review of naturalization applications. This approach will minimize the risk of discrimination, eliminate subjectivity in citizenship decisions, and increase the transparency of the process. At the same time, the Swiss model demonstrates that decentralization of citizenship regulation can preserve local democratic participation while simultaneously generating significant legal and practical inequalities. This article also emphasizes the importance of the principle of the inadmissibility of statelessness (apatrism) in Swiss law and strict adherence to legal procedures for the termination of citizenship.

Introduction. Nuclear energy technologies are essential for the global energy sector, and their positions are projected to strengthen in the coming decades. Transported nuclear power plants, including floating nuclear power units (FPUs), are among the most promising innovative technologies based on the use of the atom. The deployment of international operation of such nuclear power plants is actively discussed by the international community, and a number of states are expressing interest in implementing such projects on their territory based on Russian technologies. The regulatory framework of international law was compiled without taking into account the specifics of FPUs as nuclear installations and ships, and therefore the use of key legal instruments requires clarification and the development of ways to overcome some gaps.

Materials and methods. The methodological basis of the research is such general scientific and special methods of cognition of legal phenomena and processes in the field of international law as the comparative method, the formal-logical method, as well as the method of system analysis and forecasting, which contribute to the legal understanding of the features of regulation of FPUs, as well as the development of recommendations for solving the regulatory problems.

Results of the study. The conducted research revealed the ambiguity regarding the applicability of the regimes of a number of key sources of the main elements of international nuclear law, as well as relevant sources of international maritime law. Thus, it is necessary to clarify the status of FPUs in accordance with the instruments for regulating nuclear security, civil liability for nuclear damage, and the SOLAS Convention. One of the most promising ways to eliminate the challenges that have arisen is to resolve problematic aspects within the framework of agreements between the States of the parties to the FPU operation project.

Discussion and conclusion. The potential for the realization of international FPU operational projects necessitates bridging the gaps in the international legal regulatory system. This article examines the issues surrounding the FPU status in accordance with key international legal instruments. It substantiates the potential for addressing these pressing issues, including through bilateral agreements between the countries involved in such projects.

Introduction. In the 2020s, IT outsourcing has transcended its traditional cost-reduction function and emerged as a central mechanism of digital coordination within global value chains (GVCs). Driven by the platformization of cloud infrastructure, robotic process automation (RPA), generative artificial intelligence (GenAI), regulatory fragmentation, and geoeconomic reconfiguration, the industry is acquiring a new quality that challenges conventional offshoring theories. The article aims to identify the key factors underlying this transformation and to propose a conceptual model of the transition from a cost-arbitrage logic to an infrastructural, coordination-oriented, knowledge-service function.

Materials and methods. The study employs comparative typological analysis drawing on data from the WTO, World Bank, OECD, Gartner, Statista, NASSCOM, Synergy Research Group, and corporate reports of leading IT providers spanning 2000–2026, with a focus on 2020–2026. The methodological framework integrates GVC theory, institutional analysis, and critical secondary data analysis, enabling the identification of a structural shift rather than mere cyclical fluctuations.

Results of the study. The findings reveal that IT outsourcing has become a coordination layer of digital GVCs, connecting cloud infrastructure, data, corporate processes, and transboundary regulatory regimes. A pronounced structural asymmetry is observed: the high concentration of cloud infrastructure among three hyperscalers coexists with a diverse landscape of global, regional, and niche service providers. The concept of double intermediary dependence is substantiated - clients depend on both the service provider and the cloud platform, whose standards and jurisdiction exert decisive influence. A typology of country and regional nodes within digital GVCs is developed, distinguishing India as a multilevel digital hub, Eastern Europe as a nearshore integrator for the EU, Ireland as a high-value-added computer services node, and several emerging clusters. The study further demonstrates that automation does not eliminate outsourcing but reshapes its structure towards architectural, analytical, and domain-specific expertise.

Discussion and conclusion. Contemporary IT outsourcing functions as a hybrid mechanism linking external vendors, internal competence centres, hyperscale cloud platforms, data, and diverse regulatory frameworks. Its impact is ambivalent: alongside enhanced innovative capacity, it carries risks of knowledge loss and long-term vulnerability. Supplier selection increasingly hinges not on cost but on jurisdictional compatibility and the capacity to ensure cyber resilience. The results provide a foundation for future research on digital rent distribution and the impact of GenAI on the configuration of digital GVCs.

Introduction. This article provides a comparative analysis of two eras of global monetary hegemony: the British pound sterling in the 19th and 20th centuries and the US dollar in the 20th and 21st centuries. The dollar's current dominance faces new challenges, such as digitalization, sanctions policy, and the growth of Asian economies, making historical analysis particularly relevant. This article identifies common patterns and differences in the internationalization of the two currencies and assesses the dollar's prospects through the lens of Britain's experience of losing its hegemony. Particular attention is paid to the process of internationalization of each currency and its connection with the industrial and economic status of the issuing country, the dynamics of key quantitative indicators (current account balance, trade balance, industrial output, public debt, etc.), the factors that served as prerequisites and causes for the weakening of national currencies, and the prospects for the dollar system.

Materials and methods. A combination of scientific research techniques and methods was used in writing this paper: methods of analysis, synthesis, and analogy; methods of systemic and structural functional analysis; methods of systematization and generalization; comparative analysis; and literature review. The methodological basis of the study is represented by specialized methods: historical, comparative economic, statistical, and others.

Research results. It has been established that the dollar and the pound sterling are characterized by similar negative manifestations of hegemony: chronic current account deficit, deindustrialization of the issuing country, appreciation of the real exchange rate, and a steady increase in public debt. However, despite this, the dollar possesses clear advantages, including financial market depth, the lack of a suitable alternative, and network integration into technologies (stablecoins).

Discussion and conclusion. The study shows that a rapid resurgence of the dollar's fate, similar to that of the pound sterling, is unlikely due to systemic inertia and the lack of an equivalent competitor. The main threat to the dollar system lies not in geopolitics, but in the erosion of trust in US fiscal discipline. Unlike the UK, which has chosen protectionism and devaluation, the US can only maintain its leadership through internal transformation and a balanced industrial policy. Reserve currency status does not eliminate the need for a strong manufacturing base.

Introduction. The article examines the prospects for the development of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) amid intensifying geoeconomics fragmentation and the transformation of the global economic system. It analyzes the key external and internal factors determining the dynamics of integration processes within the EAEU, including changes in the architecture of world trade, sanctions pressure, the reorientation of economic ties, and the structural characteristics of the member states` economies. Based on the systematization of the identified factors and an analysis of theoretical approaches to forecasting regional integration, conclusions are formulated regarding the probable trajectories of further integration and the strategic development prospects of the EAEU.

Materials and methods. The work employs a set of general scientific methods of cognition, including analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, and deduction. The methodological basis of the study is comprised of systemic and structural-functional approaches, which allow for the consideration of the EAEU`s development as an integration process shaped by external and internal factors. The application of comparative and scenario analysis provided an assessment of alternative integration trajectories and identified possible directions for the transformation of economic interaction among the member states.

Research results. The results of the study show that the development of the EAEU in the context of geoeconomic fragmentation is determined by a combination of stimulating and constraining factors. External factors include geoeconomic fragmentation and the establishment of trade and economic ties by EAEU members with other states. Internal factors include differences in the scale and structure of the member states national economies, the raw materials orientation of exports, insufficient trade and economic integration among EAEU members, and persistent institutional barriers. Based on theoretical approaches,  three scenarios for the EAEU's development are identified: cumulative integration, inertial development, and progressive development. It has been established that the current predominant model is one of accumulative integration with inertial dynamics, characterized by slowed pace of integration processes while maintaining the stability of mutual trade.

Discussion and conclusion. The current stage of global economic development is characterized by intensifying fragmentation processes, which shapes a new environment for the functioning of regional associations. This study has identified the key factors determining the development trajectory of the EAEU and substantiated three possible scenarios for its further evolution. At present, integration processes are developing according to a model of cumulative integration with inertial dynamics, reflecting both the objective difficulties in coordinating the positions of the member states and the limitations of their resource base for accelerated modernization. Prospects for further research are associated with the quantitative assessment of integration effects and the development of instruments to stimulate high-tech production within the EAEU.

Introduction. The restructuring of Russia’s economic interaction with the member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) under the influence of digital transformation marks a departure from the inertial logic of simple commodity exchange towards multi-level cooperation based on data flows and algorithmic solutions. The aim of this work is to conceptually understand how the digitalisation of national economies is changing the very ontology of economic ties – their structure, intensity and quality – generating both unprecedented interdependence and new forms of strategic competition. The analysis focuses on the processes of forming digital cooperation channels, restructuring traditional trade and investment flows under the influence of “smart” technologies, as well as the emergence of institutional innovations requiring flexible regulatory alignment within a polycentric association. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the development of the concept of “stratified digital interdependence”, which captures the dialectical unity of centripetal and centrifugal tendencies within the bloc, overcoming the limitations of both theories of unambiguous technological convergence and concepts of digital isolationism.

Materials and methods. The methodological framework of the research is built on a combination of the systemic approach with elements of comparative economic and institutional analysis, allowing us to identify qualitative shifts in the mechanisms of interaction between states with multi-speed digitalisation models. The empirical basis draws on statistical data on the dynamics and commodity structure of mutual trade for 2015–2024, aggregated from open sources and customs statistics, as well as on case studies of the implementation of specific digital platforms, such as MeetSOHO Silk Road, which serve as tools for linking small and medium-sized business counterparts. Additional sources include regulatory documents and strategic doctrines of SCO member states in the field of the digital economy, cross-border data flow regulation and cybersecurity.

Results of the study. The analysis revealed a transition from a trade model dominated by raw materials and semi-finished products to the formation of value-added chains based on the shared use of production data, digital twins of products and predictive demand analytics. The new architecture of ties implies not simply the export of finished goods, but the integration of Russian industrial capacities with Chinese computer vision systems or Kazakh agricultural software within unified ecosystems created on the basis of cross-border industrial platforms. Quantitative indicators – reflecting the growth of nonresource non-energy exports to 35–40% and an annual increase in cross-border e-commerce of tens of percent – serve only as external indicators of a much deeper structural convergence. At the same time, a paradoxical “digital import trap” effect has been uncovered, where saturating domestic demand through e-commerce channels with ready-made technological solutions perpetuates dependence on foreign “black boxes” in critical sectors such as microelectronics. The conceptual core of the obtained results is a four-level model of stratification of the SCO space, which classifies states not by GDP or military power, but by their ability to generate, control and export digital architectures.

Discussion and conclusion. Interpretation of the results leads to the conclusion that Russia’s future positioning in the SCO’s digital economy lies not in a catch-up race for total technological leadership, but in a deliberate deepening of its functional niche as a guarantor of digital sovereignty and trusted data security for the entire association. Such a strategy – implying not the export of consumer gadgets but comprehensive solutions for cyber protection of critical infrastructure and methodologies for regulating end-to-end digital flows – is in demand both by countries of the third and fourth strata and by China itself as part of its own course towards technological independence from the West. The concept of stratified interdependence makes it possible to conduct the negotiation process not from a position of weakness as a follower, but through the instrumentalisation of unique assets: access to Eurasian transit routes and energy resources can be linked to the participation of Russian companies in digitalisation projects along these corridors as system integrators, not merely subcontractors.

At the same time, there is a real risk of perpetuating a semi-peripheral position in China-centric technological chains, where the Russian side performs mainly the functions of an assembler or raw material supplier for other countries’ algorithms. The transition to genuine co-transformation requires not only the signing of memoranda, but also a shift of focus from protecting the information space to jointly creating standards for the Internet of Things and artificial intelligence – a challenge given the inertia of national bureaucracies.

Introduction. The transformation of the global architecture of energy markets and the intensification of geopolitical contradictions are bringing Russia's ‘pivot to the East’ into focus. Within this paradigm, nuclear energy is not simply a commodity export product, but a strategic tool for forming long-term interdependence. The theoretical and methodological basis for such cooperation should be viewed through the prism of geoeconomics, where control over infrastructure and technological chains (nuclear fuel cycle, maintenance, spent nuclear fuel disposal) becomes a key factor of influence. Southeast Asia (SEA), which is experiencing rapid demographic and industrial growth, faces the classic ‘energy trilemma’: the need to ensure energy security, affordability and environmental sustainability. ASEAN is a critically important macro-region for Russia. However, despite the existence of a formalised strategic partnership between the Russian Federation and ASEAN, the actual substance of bilateral relations in high-tech sectors often lags behind the stated political ambitions. The aim of this study is to assess the potential and identify barriers to the development of Russian-Asian cooperation in the nuclear sphere, based on a synthesis of theory and analysis of current practice.

Materials and methods. The methodological basis of the study relies on systematic analysis, which allows assessing the impact of international legal regimes (IAEA standards) and national regulatory practices on the implementation of infrastructure megaprojects. The empirical basis consists of IAEA statistical data, Rosatom State Corporation reports, and analytical studies on the global energy market. To assess the financial and economic viability of projects, a comparative analysis of investment models (BOO versus traditional PPP) was used.

Research results. A systematic analysis has shown that Russia possesses technological competencies that are critically important for the growing economies of ASEAN countries. Experience gained from cooperation with Vietnam on the Ninh Thuan-1 nuclear power plant project has shown that macroeconomic constraints and the aftermath of the Fukushima-1 accident could lead to the cancellation of large-scale construction projects, shifting the focus to the creation of research and development centres. It has been found that small modular reactors (SMRs) are the main driver of cooperation with archipelagic states such as Indonesia. Economic analysis has proven the ineffectiveness of traditional public-private partnership (PPP) mechanisms in the realities of Southeast Asia due to the enormous capital intensity of nuclear facilities. The need to apply the Build-Own-Operate (BOO) investment model has been substantiated, although it is associated with significant financial risks for the Russian Federation. It has been proven that successful expansion requires a comprehensive approach: providing a full range of services, including radioactive waste processing, and expanding humanitarian influence through the training of national personnel and the transfer of advanced nuclear medicine technologies.

Discussion and conclusion. The analysis conducted allows us to conclude that nuclear energy is objectively becoming the most important tool for ensuring energy security for ASEAN economies. For Russia, the SEA countries represent a strategically important macro-region, and partnership with them contributes to the diversification of high-tech exports. At the same time, the formal political status of strategic partnership does not automatically translate into commercial projects. Successful expansion faces the problem of financing. Classic PPP models have proven ineffective, requiring Russia to carefully apply the BOO investment model with competent risk distribution. Small modular reactors (SMRs) are the key technological driver in the region, most relevant for archipelagic states such as Indonesia. The integration of technological leadership, solutions for radioactive waste disposal, and compliance with international nuclear law will allow Russia not only to maintain its position, but also to become a key architect of Southeast Asia's energy future.

Introduction. The article examines the characteristics of a public body as of a cyber-physical system as well as the challenges emerging upon considering public bodies from such perspective. The author analyses challenges that public bodies encounter due to necessity to influence on socio-economic environment not only in legal terms, but also physically. The study also encompasses the opportunities deriving from cyber-physical of public bodies and the governance principles that appear to be reasonable for planning further evolution of public bodies.

Materials and methods. The article relies on a set of general scientific, formal-logical methods (including methods induction and deduction, of cognition and description) and special methods (content analysis method, structural and functional analysis etc.).

Results of the study. The study has uncovered a number of challenges regarding IT, cadre and methodology support of public bodies evolution as of cyber-physical systems. Despite public bodies showing signs of being cyber-physical systems this concept is currently applied only to manufacturing systems. The study suggests that considering public bodies as cyber-physical systems shall foster synchronisation of public bodies digital transformation levels and the development of management mechanisms.

Discussions and conclusion. In conclusion the basic principles for the modification of public bodies governance mechanisms are provided to support public bodies evolution as cyber-physical systems and to boost their efficiency.

Introduction. The aim of this article is to analyze how the strategies of major oil and gas companies have evolved both in their core hydrocarbon business and in its low-carbon component, as a result of the erratic energy policies pursued by many large energy-consuming countries. For decades, oil and gas activities formed the backbone of these companies’ operations. However, with the growing political prioritization of “green energy,” several major players announced intentions to scale back traditional hydrocarbons and dramatically increase investments in renewable energy. Of particular interest are the actual outcomes these companies have faced depending on their chosen policy trajectory and strategic decisions.

Materials and methods. The study employs qualitative research approaches that make it possible to synthesize existing perspectives on corporate diversification and to assess its advantages and drawbacks. Corporate reports of leading oil and gas companies were examined to identify the key drivers and strategic directions underlying their ongoing transformation.

Research results. The authors analyzed the strategic planning practices of European and American majors in the context of the fourth energy transition, highlighting the differences in their approaches and paying close attention to the gap between the companies’ public commitments and their actual performance.

Discussion and conclusion. The research examines U.S. majors (ExxonMobil, Chevron) and European majors (BP, Shell, TotalEnergies), which initially adopted fundamentally different strategies at the outset of the fourth energy transition. The former continued to focus on expanding their core business while emphasizing decarbonization through emissions reduction and the deployment of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies. European companies, by contrast, planned to scale down liquid hydrocarbons production and contribute substantial resources into diversifying towards renewable energy. However, the European approach ultimately failed to deliver the expected results, as evidenced by their recent pivot back to oil and gas and the reversal of many earlier commitments and investments in renewables - effectively bringing their strategies back in line with those of their American counterparts. Another important indicator of the shortcomings of the European model is the widening gap in market capitalization between European and U.S. majors, a trend that has accelerated alongside the rise of the “green” agenda.